In his first message to Congress, Jackson had proclaimed that Native American groups living independently within states, as sovereign entities, presented a major problem for state sovereignty. What differences do you see between these two representations of Wi-jГєn-jon? Do you think his attempt to imitate White people was successful? Why or why not? What do you think Catlin was trying to convey with this depiction of Wi-jГєn-jonвЂ™s assimilation? THE INDIAN REMOVAL ACT In Wi-jГєn-jon, Pigeon's Egg Head (The Light) Going To and Returning From Washington, the viewer is shown a before and after portrait of Wi-jГєn-jon, who tried to emulate White dress and manners after going to Washington, DC. Indeed, the paintingвЂ™s depiction of Native people riding horses, which were introduced by the Spanish, makes clear that, as much as Catlin and White viewers wanted to believe in the primitive and savage Native, the reality was otherwise. Such a portrayal stretches credibility as Native peoples had long been exposed to and adopted European weapons. In Attacking the Grizzly Bear, the hunters do not have rifles and instead rely on spears.

Accuracy aside, the painting captured the imaginations of White viewers, reinforcing their disgust at the savagery of Native Americans.ДЇigure 10.13 In Attacking the Grizzly Bear (a), painted in 1844, Catlin focused on the NativesвЂ™ own vanishing culture, while in Wi-jГєn-jon, PigeonвЂ™s Egg Head (The Light) Going To and Returning From Washington (b), painted in 1837вЂ“1839, he contrasted their ways with those of White people by showing an Assiniboine leader transformed by a visit to Washington, DC.Д¬atlin routinely painted Native Americans in a supposedly aboriginal state. Scholars have long questioned the accuracy of this portrayal of a rite of passage among the Mandan people. The Cutting Scene, Mandan O-kee-pa Ceremony ( Figure 10.12) is one example.

George Catlin produced many paintings of Native peoples, which he offered as true representations despite routinely emphasizing their supposed 'savage' nature. Native Americans also made frequent appearances in art. Natty endures even as his Native American friends die, including the noble Uncas, the last Mohican, in a narrative that dovetailed with most peopleвЂ™s approval of Native removal. Cooper provides a romantic version of the French and Indian War in which Natty helps the British against the French and the feral, bloodthirsty Huron. James Fenimore CooperвЂ™s very popular historical novel, The Last of the Mohicans, published in 1826 as part of his Leatherstocking series, told the tale of Nathaniel вЂњNattyвЂќ Bumppo (aka Hawkeye), who lived among Native Americans but had been born to White parents. In an age of mass democracy, powerful anti-Native sentiments found expression in mass culture, shaping popular perceptions. Jackson skillfully played upon this racial hatred to engage the United States in a policy of ethnic cleansing, eradicating the Native presence from the land to make way for White civilization. Popular culture in the first half of the nineteenth century reflected the aversion to Native Americans that was pervasive during the Age of Jackson. The 1830 Indian Removal Act and subsequent displacement of the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, and Cherokee tribes of the Southeast fulfilled the vision of a White nation and became one of the identifying characteristics of the Age of Jackson. He had fought against the Creek in 1813 and against the Seminole in 1817, and his reputation and popularity rested in large measure on his firm commitment to remove Native residents from states in the South. JacksonвЂ™s animosity toward Native Americans ran deep. Pro-Jackson newspapers touted the president as a champion of opening land for White settlement and moving native inhabitants beyond the boundaries of вЂњAmerican civilization.вЂќ In this effort, Jackson reflected majority opinion: most Americans believed Native peoples had no place in the White republic. Describe the Indian Removal Act's effect on Native American people, and their responses to it.Describe how depictions of Native peoples in popular culture helped lead to Native removal.Explain the legal wrangling that surrounded the Indian Removal Act.By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Indian removal act